Perfluorooctanesulfonic acid Sorption onto Polyethylene Microplastics: A Simulation-Driven Response Surface Optimization via Central Composite Design

Christian Enyoh; Qingyue Wang; Prosper Eguono Ovuoraye; Senlin Lu; Titus Egbosiuba

doi:10.5614/j.eng.technol.sci.2025.57.1.2

Perfluorooctanesulfonic acid Sorption onto Polyethylene Microplastics: A Simulation-Driven Response Surface Optimization via Central Composite Design

Published: 2025-01-01 | DOI: 10.5614/j.eng.technol.sci.2025.57.1.2 | Vol 57, Issue 1 (2025) | Cited by: 4

Authors

Christian Enyoh

Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Saitama University, 255 Shimo-Okubo, Sakura-ku, Saitama City, Saitama 338-8570

ORCID: 0000-0003-4132-8988 · OpenAlex: A5078317802

Qingyue Wang

Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Saitama University, 255 Shimo-Okubo, Sakura-ku, Saitama City, Saitama 338-8570

ORCID: 0000-0002-7673-2836 · OpenAlex: A5057122491

Prosper Eguono Ovuoraye

Department of Chemical Engineering, Federal University of Petroleum Resources, PMB 1221 Effurun

ORCID: 0000-0003-2841-7708 · OpenAlex: A5047589924

Senlin Lu

School of environmental and chemical engineering, Shanghai University, Shanghai 200444

ORCID: 0000-0003-2211-2655 · OpenAlex: A5100670323

Titus Egbosiuba

Sustainable Materials Laboratory (SusMatLab), Missouri University of Science and Technology, Rolla, MO 65409,

ORCID: 0000-0003-4402-5405 · OpenAlex: A5046724799

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Abstract

This study demonstrates the application of response surface modeling within a Central Composite Design (CCD) to optimize the sorption processes of perfluorooctanesulfonic acid (PFOS) onto polyethylene microplastics (PE MPs), using simulation-based data from Grand Canonical Monte Carlo (GCMC) and molecular dynamics (MD) simulations. The investigation intricately analyzes the complex interactions governing sorption phenomena (i.e. temperature and PFOS loading counts) with responses such as sorption energy, sorption density, and binding energy, employing RSM within a CCD framework. The optimization process established that the PE MPs sorption energy and sorption density were significantly dependent on PFOS loading counts in an aqueous environment. The result provides that at elevated temperature binding energy of PE MPs to Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances was also dependent on PFOS loading counts due to associated low sensitivity temperature in the system. Optimal conditions are unveiled, enhancing sorption energy by -181.89 Kcal/mol, binding energy by -161.02 Kcal/mol, and sorption density by 1.42 g/cm³. The interaction of temperature and PFOS loading count is thoroughly examined, revealing their respective influences on sorption dynamics. These findings significantly advance our comprehension of PFOS sorption processes, fostering improved strategies for environmental remediation involving microplastic-driven sorption phenomena.

Keywords

computational methods; forever chemicals; multivariate statistical techniques; sorption energy; sorption density

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Citations

5.55

FWCIfield-weighted

95th

Percentilevs same year + field

Article

Work type

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Open Access

Topics

Material Properties and Applications Primary

0.87

General Materials Science › Materials Science › Physical Sciences

Synthesis and properties of polymers

0.84

Related Research

Citation Trend

2025

2026

Citation Timeline

Year	Citations
2026	2
2025	2

Semantic Profile AI-classified research signals

Core Domains

Microplastics 0.86

level 2

Composite number 0.67

level 2

Response surface methodology 0.64

level 2

Secondary Topics

Polyethylene 0.58 Environmental chemistry 0.42 Environmental science 0.39 Chemical engineering 0.39 Materials science 0.38 Environmental engineering 0.32 Chemistry 0.29 Composite material 0.25 Adsorption 0.23 Chromatography 0.22

Institution Network

Saitama University JP
Christian Ebere Enyoh · Qingyue Wang
Federal University of Petroleum Resource Effurun NG
Prosper Eguono Ovuoraye
Shanghai University CN
Senlin Lü
Missouri University of Science and Technology US
Titus Chinedu Egbosiuba

References

Agboola, O. D., & Benson, N. U. (2021). Physisorption and Chemisorption Mechanisms Influencing Micro (Nano) Plastics-Organic Chemical Contaminants Interactions: A Review. Frontiers in Environmental Science, 9, 678574.
Allouss, D., Essamlali, Y., Amadine, O., Chakir, A., & Zahouily, M. (2019). Response surface methodology for optimization of methylene blue adsorption onto carboxymethyl cellulose-based hydrogel beads: adsorption kinetics, isotherm, thermodynamics and reusability studies. RSC Advances, 9(65), 37858–37869. https://doi.org/10.1039/c9ra06450h DOI: 10.1039/c9ra06450h
Babut, M.; Labadie, P.; Simonnet-Laprade, C.; Munoz, G.; Roger, M.; Ferrari, B.; Budzinski, H.; Sivade, E. (2017): Per-and poly-fluoroalkyl compounds in freshwater fish from the Rhône River: Influence of fish size, diet, prey contamination and biotransformation. Science of The Total Environment, 605, 38–47.
Bahrami, M., Mohammad, J.A., Sara, R., Mohamadreza, M. (2024). The removal of methylene blue from aqueous solutions by polyethylene microplastics: Modeling batch adsorption using random forest regression. Alexandria Engineering Journal, 95, 101-113. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aej.2024.03.100 DOI: 10.1016/j.aej.2024.03.100
Bakir A, Rowland SJ, Thompson RC (2014) Enhanced desorption of persistent organic pollutants from microplastics under simulated physiological conditions. Environ Pollut 185, 16–23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2013.10.007 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2013.10.007
Campanale, C., Massarelli, C., Savino, I., Locaputo, V., & Uricchio, V. F. (2020). A Detailed Review Study on Potential Effects of Microplastics and Additives of Concern on Human Health. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(4), 1212. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17041212 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph17041212
Cheng, Y., Mai, L., Lu, X., Li, Z., Guo, Y., Chen, D., & Wang, F. (2021). Occurrence and abundance of poly- and perfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) on microplastics (MPs) in Pearl River Estuary (PRE) region: Spatial and temporal variations. Environmental Pollution, 281, 117025. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2021.117025 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2021.117025
Connolly M. L., (1983). Analytical molecular surface calculation. Journal of Applied Crystallography, 16(5), 548–558. https://doi.org/doi:10.1107/s0021889883010985 DOI: 10.1107/s0021889883010985
Cormier, B., Borchet, F., Kärrman, A., Szot, M. R., Yeung, L. W. Y. & Keiffer, S. H. (2022). Sorption and desorption kinetics of PFOS to pristine microplastic. Environ Sci Pollut Res, 29, 4497–4507. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-15923-x DOI: 10.1007/s11356-021-15923-x
Cunningham, E. M., Ehlers, S. M., Kiriakoulakis, K., Schuchert, P., Jones, N. H., Kregting, L., Woodall, L. C., & Dick, J. T. A. (2022). The accumulation of microplastic pollution in a commercially important fishing ground. Scientific Reports, 12(1), 4217. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-08203-2 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-08203-2
Cverenkárová, K., Valachovičová, M., Mackuľak, T., Žemlička, L., & Bírošová, L. (2021). Microplastics in the Food Chain. Life (Basel, Switzerland), 11(12), 1349. https://doi.org/10.3390/life11121349 DOI: 10.3390/life11121349
Enyoh C.E. and Wang Q. (2022): Combined experimental and molecular dynamics removal processes of contaminant phenol from simulated wastewater by polyethylene terephthalate microplastics. Environmental Technology. 45(6), 1183–1202. https://doi.org/10.1080/09593330.2022.2139636 DOI: 10.1080/09593330.2022.2139636
Enyoh C.E., Qingyue Wang, Weiqian Wang, Tanzin Chowdhury, Mominul Haque Rabin, Md. Rezwanul Islam, Guo Yue, Lin Yichun & Kai
Xiao (2022a): Sorption of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) using Polyethylene (PE) microplastics as adsorbent: Grand Canonical Monte Carlo and Molecular Dynamics (GCMC-MD) studies, International Journal of Environmental Analytical Chemistry, https://doi.org/10.1080/03067319.2022.2070016 DOI: 10.1080/03067319.2022.2070016
Enyoh, C.E, Wang, Q., Prosper O. (2022b). Response Surface Methodology for modeling the Adsorptive uptake of Phenol from Aqueous solution Using Adsorbent Polyethylene Terephthalate Microplastics. Chemical Engineering Journal Advances, 12, 100370. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ceja.2022.100370 DOI: 10.1016/j.ceja.2022.100370
Enyoh, C.E.; Ovuoraye, P.; Wang, Q.; Wang, W. (2023a): Examining the Impact of Nanoplastics and PFAS Exposure on Immune Functions through Inhibition of Secretory Immunoglobin A in Human Breast Milk Examining the Impact of Nanoplastics and PFAS Exposure on Immune Functions through Inhibition of Secretory Immunoglobin A in Human Breast Milk. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 459, 132103. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2023.132103 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2023.132103
Enyoh, C.E.; Wang, Q.; (2023) Adsorption and toxicity characteristics of ciprofloxacin on differently prepared polyethylene terephthalate microplastics from both experimental and theoretical perspectives. Journal of Water Process Engineering, 53, 103909. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jwpe.2023.103909 DOI: 10.1016/j.jwpe.2023.103909
Enyoh, C.E.; Wang, Q.; Senlin, L. (2023b) Optimizing the Efficient Removal of Ciprofloxacin from Aqueous Solutions by Polyethylene Terephthalate Microplastics using Multivariate Statistical Approach. Chemical Engineering Science, 278 (12), 118917. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ces.2023.118917 DOI: 10.1016/j.ces.2023.118917
Erni-Cassola, G., Zadjelovic, V., Gibson, M. I., & Christie-Oleza, J. A. (2019). Distribution of plastic polymer types in the marine environment; A meta-analysis. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 369, 691–698. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2019.02.067 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2019.02.067
European Chemical Agency. n.d. (2023, May 5) Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS). https://echa.europa.eu/hot-topics/perfluoroalkyl-chemicals-pfas
Evans S., David A., Tasha S., Olga N. (2020). PFAS Contamination of Drinking Water Far More Prevalent Than Previously Reported. Research. https://www.ewg.org/research/national-pfas-testing#:~:text=
Ferreira, N., Thainara, V., Bruno, H., Daniela, S. T., Jessica, J., Joao, C., Joao, P., & Eduarda, P. (2023). Application of response surface methodology and box–behnken design for the optimization of mercury removal by Ulva sp. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 445 (2023) 130405. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2022.130405 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2022.130405
Hakimabadi, S. G., Taylor, A., & Pham, A. L. T. (2023). Factors Affecting the Adsorption of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) by Colloidal Activated Carbon. Water Research, 242, 120212. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2023.120212 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2023.120212
Joo, S. H., Liang, Y., Kim, M., Byun, J., & Choi, H. (2021). Microplastics adsorbed contaminants: Mechanisms and Treatment. Environmental Challenges, 3, 100042. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envc.2021.100042 DOI: 10.1016/j.envc.2021.100042
Lionetto, F., & Esposito Corcione, C. (2021). An Overview of the Sorption Studies of Contaminants on Poly(Ethylene Terephthalate) Microplastics in the Marine Environment. Journal of Marine Science and Engineering, 9(4), 445. https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse9040445 DOI: 10.3390/jmse9040445
Llorca, M., Schirinzi, G., Martínez, M., Barceló, D., & Farré, M. (2018). Adsorption of perfluoroalkyl substances on microplastics under environmental conditions. Environmental Pollution (Barking, Essex: 1987), 235, 680–691. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2017.12.075 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2017.12.075
Amiri, M. J., Bahrami, M., & Dehkhodaie, F. (2019). Optimization of Hg(II) adsorption on bio-apatite based materials using CCD-RSM design: characterization and mechanism studies. Journal of Water & Health, 17(4), 556–567. https://doi.org/10.2166/wh.2019.039 DOI: 10.2166/wh.2019.039
Ovuoraye, P.E., Ugonabo, V.I. & Nwokocha, G.F. (2021). Optimization studies on turbidity removal from cosmetics wastewater using aluminum sulfate and blends of fishbone. SN Applied Sciences, 3, 488. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-021-04458-y DOI: 10.1007/s42452-021-04458-y
Scott, J. W., Gunderson, K. G., Green, L. A.,Rediske, R.R., & Steinman, A.D. (2021). Perfluoroalkylated Substances (PFAS) Associated with Microplastics in a Lake Environment. Toxics, 9, 106. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics9050106 DOI: 10.3390/toxics9050106
Teng, C., Huang, D., & Bao, J. L. (2023). A spur to molecular geometry optimization: Gradient-enhanced universal kriging with on-the-fly adaptive ab initio prior mean functions in curvilinear coordinates. The Journal of Chemical Physics, 158(2), 024112. https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0133675 DOI: 10.1063/5.0133675
Wang F, Shih KM, Li XY (2015). The partition behavior of perfluorooctanesulfonate (PFOS) and perfluorooctanesulfonamide (FOSA) on microplastics. Chemosphere, 119, 841–847. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2014.08.047 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2014.08.047
Witek-Krowiak, A., Chojnacka, K., Podstawczyk, D., Dawiec, A., Pokomeda, K., (2014). Application of response surface methodology and artificial neural network methods in modelling and optimization of biosorption process. Bioresource Technology., 160, 150–160. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2014.01.021. DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2014.01.021
Yang, H., Kang, J., Jeong, S., Park, S., Lee, C. Removal of perfluorooctanoic acid from water using peroxydisulfate/layered double hydroxide system: (2022). Optimization using response surface methodology and artificial neural network. Process Safety and Environmental Protection. 167, 368-377. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psep.2022.09.032 DOI: 10.1016/j.psep.2022.09.032
Zhao, M., Huang, L., Arulmani, S. R. B., Yan, J., Wu, L., Wu, T., Zhang, H., & Xiao, T. (2022). Adsorption of Different Pollutants by Using Microplastic with Different Influencing Factors and Mechanisms in Wastewater: A Review. Nanomaterials (Basel, Switzerland), 12(13), 2256. https://doi.org/10.3390/nano12132256 DOI: 10.3390/nano12132256

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[ref-1] Agboola, O. D., & Benson, N. U. (2021). Physisorption and Chemisorption Mechanisms Influencing Micro (Nano) Plastics-Organic Chemical Contaminants Interactions: A Review. Frontiers in Environmental Science, 9, 678574.

[ref-2] Allouss, D., Essamlali, Y., Amadine, O., Chakir, A., & Zahouily, M. (2019). Response surface methodology for optimization of methylene blue adsorption onto carboxymethyl cellulose-based hydrogel beads: adsorption kinetics, isotherm, thermodynamics and reusability studies. RSC Advances, 9(65), 37858–37869. https://doi.org/10.1039/c9ra06450h DOI: 10.1039/c9ra06450h

[ref-3] Babut, M.; Labadie, P.; Simonnet-Laprade, C.; Munoz, G.; Roger, M.; Ferrari, B.; Budzinski, H.; Sivade, E. (2017): Per-and poly-fluoroalkyl compounds in freshwater fish from the Rhône River: Influence of fish size, diet, prey contamination and biotransformation. Science of The Total Environment, 605, 38–47.

[ref-4] Bahrami, M., Mohammad, J.A., Sara, R., Mohamadreza, M. (2024). The removal of methylene blue from aqueous solutions by polyethylene microplastics: Modeling batch adsorption using random forest regression. Alexandria Engineering Journal, 95, 101-113. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aej.2024.03.100 DOI: 10.1016/j.aej.2024.03.100

[ref-5] Bakir A, Rowland SJ, Thompson RC (2014) Enhanced desorption of persistent organic pollutants from microplastics under simulated physiological conditions. Environ Pollut 185, 16–23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2013.10.007 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2013.10.007

[ref-6] Campanale, C., Massarelli, C., Savino, I., Locaputo, V., & Uricchio, V. F. (2020). A Detailed Review Study on Potential Effects of Microplastics and Additives of Concern on Human Health. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(4), 1212. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17041212 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph17041212

[ref-7] Cheng, Y., Mai, L., Lu, X., Li, Z., Guo, Y., Chen, D., & Wang, F. (2021). Occurrence and abundance of poly- and perfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) on microplastics (MPs) in Pearl River Estuary (PRE) region: Spatial and temporal variations. Environmental Pollution, 281, 117025. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2021.117025 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2021.117025

[ref-8] Connolly M. L., (1983). Analytical molecular surface calculation. Journal of Applied Crystallography, 16(5), 548–558. https://doi.org/doi:10.1107/s0021889883010985 DOI: 10.1107/s0021889883010985

[ref-9] Cormier, B., Borchet, F., Kärrman, A., Szot, M. R., Yeung, L. W. Y. & Keiffer, S. H. (2022). Sorption and desorption kinetics of PFOS to pristine microplastic. Environ Sci Pollut Res, 29, 4497–4507. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-15923-x DOI: 10.1007/s11356-021-15923-x

[ref-10] Cunningham, E. M., Ehlers, S. M., Kiriakoulakis, K., Schuchert, P., Jones, N. H., Kregting, L., Woodall, L. C., & Dick, J. T. A. (2022). The accumulation of microplastic pollution in a commercially important fishing ground. Scientific Reports, 12(1), 4217. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-08203-2 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-08203-2

[ref-11] Cverenkárová, K., Valachovičová, M., Mackuľak, T., Žemlička, L., & Bírošová, L. (2021). Microplastics in the Food Chain. Life (Basel, Switzerland), 11(12), 1349. https://doi.org/10.3390/life11121349 DOI: 10.3390/life11121349

[ref-12] Enyoh C.E. and Wang Q. (2022): Combined experimental and molecular dynamics removal processes of contaminant phenol from simulated wastewater by polyethylene terephthalate microplastics. Environmental Technology. 45(6), 1183–1202. https://doi.org/10.1080/09593330.2022.2139636 DOI: 10.1080/09593330.2022.2139636

[ref-13] Enyoh C.E., Qingyue Wang, Weiqian Wang, Tanzin Chowdhury, Mominul Haque Rabin, Md. Rezwanul Islam, Guo Yue, Lin Yichun & Kai

[ref-14] Xiao (2022a): Sorption of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) using Polyethylene (PE) microplastics as adsorbent: Grand Canonical Monte Carlo and Molecular Dynamics (GCMC-MD) studies, International Journal of Environmental Analytical Chemistry, https://doi.org/10.1080/03067319.2022.2070016 DOI: 10.1080/03067319.2022.2070016

[ref-15] Enyoh, C.E, Wang, Q., Prosper O. (2022b). Response Surface Methodology for modeling the Adsorptive uptake of Phenol from Aqueous solution Using Adsorbent Polyethylene Terephthalate Microplastics. Chemical Engineering Journal Advances, 12, 100370. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ceja.2022.100370 DOI: 10.1016/j.ceja.2022.100370

[ref-16] Enyoh, C.E.; Ovuoraye, P.; Wang, Q.; Wang, W. (2023a): Examining the Impact of Nanoplastics and PFAS Exposure on Immune Functions through Inhibition of Secretory Immunoglobin A in Human Breast Milk Examining the Impact of Nanoplastics and PFAS Exposure on Immune Functions through Inhibition of Secretory Immunoglobin A in Human Breast Milk. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 459, 132103. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2023.132103 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2023.132103

[ref-17] Enyoh, C.E.; Wang, Q.; (2023) Adsorption and toxicity characteristics of ciprofloxacin on differently prepared polyethylene terephthalate microplastics from both experimental and theoretical perspectives. Journal of Water Process Engineering, 53, 103909. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jwpe.2023.103909 DOI: 10.1016/j.jwpe.2023.103909

[ref-18] Enyoh, C.E.; Wang, Q.; Senlin, L. (2023b) Optimizing the Efficient Removal of Ciprofloxacin from Aqueous Solutions by Polyethylene Terephthalate Microplastics using Multivariate Statistical Approach. Chemical Engineering Science, 278 (12), 118917. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ces.2023.118917 DOI: 10.1016/j.ces.2023.118917

[ref-19] Erni-Cassola, G., Zadjelovic, V., Gibson, M. I., & Christie-Oleza, J. A. (2019). Distribution of plastic polymer types in the marine environment; A meta-analysis. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 369, 691–698. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2019.02.067 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2019.02.067

[ref-20] European Chemical Agency. n.d. (2023, May 5) Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS). https://echa.europa.eu/hot-topics/perfluoroalkyl-chemicals-pfas

[ref-21] Evans S., David A., Tasha S., Olga N. (2020). PFAS Contamination of Drinking Water Far More Prevalent Than Previously Reported. Research. https://www.ewg.org/research/national-pfas-testing#:~:text=

[ref-22] Ferreira, N., Thainara, V., Bruno, H., Daniela, S. T., Jessica, J., Joao, C., Joao, P., & Eduarda, P. (2023). Application of response surface methodology and box–behnken design for the optimization of mercury removal by Ulva sp. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 445 (2023) 130405. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2022.130405 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2022.130405

[ref-23] Hakimabadi, S. G., Taylor, A., & Pham, A. L. T. (2023). Factors Affecting the Adsorption of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) by Colloidal Activated Carbon. Water Research, 242, 120212. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2023.120212 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2023.120212

[ref-24] Joo, S. H., Liang, Y., Kim, M., Byun, J., & Choi, H. (2021). Microplastics adsorbed contaminants: Mechanisms and Treatment. Environmental Challenges, 3, 100042. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envc.2021.100042 DOI: 10.1016/j.envc.2021.100042

[ref-25] Lionetto, F., & Esposito Corcione, C. (2021). An Overview of the Sorption Studies of Contaminants on Poly(Ethylene Terephthalate) Microplastics in the Marine Environment. Journal of Marine Science and Engineering, 9(4), 445. https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse9040445 DOI: 10.3390/jmse9040445

[ref-26] Llorca, M., Schirinzi, G., Martínez, M., Barceló, D., & Farré, M. (2018). Adsorption of perfluoroalkyl substances on microplastics under environmental conditions. Environmental Pollution (Barking, Essex: 1987), 235, 680–691. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2017.12.075 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2017.12.075

[ref-27] Amiri, M. J., Bahrami, M., & Dehkhodaie, F. (2019). Optimization of Hg(II) adsorption on bio-apatite based materials using CCD-RSM design: characterization and mechanism studies. Journal of Water & Health, 17(4), 556–567. https://doi.org/10.2166/wh.2019.039 DOI: 10.2166/wh.2019.039

[ref-28] Ovuoraye, P.E., Ugonabo, V.I. & Nwokocha, G.F. (2021). Optimization studies on turbidity removal from cosmetics wastewater using aluminum sulfate and blends of fishbone. SN Applied Sciences, 3, 488. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-021-04458-y DOI: 10.1007/s42452-021-04458-y

[ref-29] Scott, J. W., Gunderson, K. G., Green, L. A.,Rediske, R.R., & Steinman, A.D. (2021). Perfluoroalkylated Substances (PFAS) Associated with Microplastics in a Lake Environment. Toxics, 9, 106. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics9050106 DOI: 10.3390/toxics9050106

[ref-30] Teng, C., Huang, D., & Bao, J. L. (2023). A spur to molecular geometry optimization: Gradient-enhanced universal kriging with on-the-fly adaptive ab initio prior mean functions in curvilinear coordinates. The Journal of Chemical Physics, 158(2), 024112. https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0133675 DOI: 10.1063/5.0133675

[ref-31] Wang F, Shih KM, Li XY (2015). The partition behavior of perfluorooctanesulfonate (PFOS) and perfluorooctanesulfonamide (FOSA) on microplastics. Chemosphere, 119, 841–847. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2014.08.047 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2014.08.047

[ref-32] Witek-Krowiak, A., Chojnacka, K., Podstawczyk, D., Dawiec, A., Pokomeda, K., (2014). Application of response surface methodology and artificial neural network methods in modelling and optimization of biosorption process. Bioresource Technology., 160, 150–160. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2014.01.021. DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2014.01.021

[ref-33] Yang, H., Kang, J., Jeong, S., Park, S., Lee, C. Removal of perfluorooctanoic acid from water using peroxydisulfate/layered double hydroxide system: (2022). Optimization using response surface methodology and artificial neural network. Process Safety and Environmental Protection. 167, 368-377. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psep.2022.09.032 DOI: 10.1016/j.psep.2022.09.032

[ref-34] Zhao, M., Huang, L., Arulmani, S. R. B., Yan, J., Wu, L., Wu, T., Zhang, H., & Xiao, T. (2022). Adsorption of Different Pollutants by Using Microplastic with Different Influencing Factors and Mechanisms in Wastewater: A Review. Nanomaterials (Basel, Switzerland), 12(13), 2256. https://doi.org/10.3390/nano12132256 DOI: 10.3390/nano12132256